Non-small cell lung cancer organoids: Advances and challenges in current applications.

Lung cancer is emerging as a common malignancy worldwide, with non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounting for approximately 85% of all cases. Two-dimensional (2D) cell line cultures and animal models are currently used to study NSCLC. However, 2D cell cultures fail to replicate the medication response and neoplastic heterogeneity of parental tumors. Animal models are expensive and require lengthy modeling cycles. The generation of three-dimensional (3D) tissue cultures called organoids, which exhibit multicellular, anatomical, and functional properties of real organs, is now achievable owing to advancements in stem cell culturing. The genetic, proteomic, morphological, and pharmacological characteristics of tumors are largely preserved in tumor organoids grown . The design and physiology of human organs can be precisely reconstructed in tumor organoids, opening new possibilities for complementing the use of animal models and studying human diseases. This review summarizes the development of NSCLC organoids and their applications in basic research, drug testing, immunotherapy, and individualized treatments.