Current Challenges in Diagnosis and Treatment.

bacteria (, ) are commonly found in nature in all climatic zones and are isolated from food (mainly raw pork, unpasteurized milk, or contaminated water), soil, and surface water, rarely from contaminated blood. infection occurs through sick or asymptomatic carriers and contact with the feces of infected animals. The invasion of specific bacterial serotypes into the host cell is based on the type 3 secretion system (T3SS), which directly introduces many effector proteins ( outer proteins-Yops) into the host cell. The course of yersiniosis can be acute or chronic, with the predominant symptoms of acute enteritis (rarely pseudo-appendicitis or septicemia develops). Clinical and laboratory diagnosis of yersiniosis is difficult. The infection requires confirmation by isolating bacteria from feces or other biological materials, including lymph nodes, synovial fluid, urine, bile, or blood. The detection of antibodies in blood serum or synovial fluid is useful in the diagnostic process. The treatment of yersiniosis is mainly symptomatic. Uncomplicated infections (diarrhea and abdominal pain) usually do not require antibiotic therapy, which is indicated in severe cases. Surgical intervention is undertaken in the situations of intestinal necrosis. Given the diagnostic and therapeutic difficulties, this review discusses the prevalence of and , their mechanisms of disease induction (virulence factors and host response), clinical manifestations, diagnostic and preventive methods, and treatment strategies in the context of current knowledge and available recommendations.