Sex-specific regulatory architecture of pancreatic islets from subjects with and without type 2 diabetes.

Patients with type 2 and type 1 diabetes (T2D and T1D) exhibit sex-specific differences in insulin secretion, the mechanisms of which are unknown. We examined sex differences in human pancreatic islets from 52 donors with and without T2D combining single cell RNA-sequencing (scRNA-seq) and single nucleus ATAC-sequencing (snATAC-seq) with assays probing hormone secretion and bioenergetics. In non-diabetic (ND) donors, sex differences in islet cell chromatin accessibility and gene expression predominantly involved sex chromosomes. In contrast, islets from T2D donors exhibited similar sex differences in sex chromosome-encoded differentially expressed genes (DEGs) as ND donors, but also exhibited sex differences in autosomal genes. Comparing β cells from T2D and ND donors, gene enrichment of female β cells showed suppression in mitochondrial respiration, while male β cells exhibited suppressed insulin secretion, suggesting a role for mitochondrial failure in females in the transition to T2D. We finally performed cell type-specific, sex stratified, GWAS restricted to differentially accessible chromatin peaks across T2D, fasting glucose, and fasting insulin traits. We identified that differentially accessible regions overlap with T2D-associated variants in a sex- and cell type-specific manner.