Nucleic acid-based wearable and implantable electrochemical sensors.

The rapid advancements in nucleic acid-based electrochemical sensors for implantable and wearable applications have marked a significant leap forward in the domain of personal healthcare over the last decade. This technology promises to revolutionize personalized healthcare by facilitating the early diagnosis of diseases, monitoring of disease progression, and tailoring of individual treatment plans. This review navigates through the latest developments in this field, focusing on the strategies for nucleic acid sensing that enable real-time and continuous biomarker analysis directly in various biofluids, such as blood, interstitial fluid, sweat, and saliva. The review delves into various nucleic acid sensing strategies, emphasizing the innovative designs of biorecognition elements and signal transduction mechanisms that enable implantable and wearable applications. Special perspective is given to enhance nucleic acid-based sensor selectivity and sensitivity, which are crucial for the accurate detection of low-level biomarkers. The integration of such sensors into implantable and wearable platforms, including microneedle arrays and flexible electronic systems, actualizes their use in on-body devices for health monitoring. We also tackle the technical challenges encountered in the development of these sensors, such as ensuring long-term stability, managing the complexity of biofluid dynamics, and fulfilling the need for real-time, continuous, and reagentless detection. In conclusion, the review highlights the importance of these sensors in the future of medical engineering, offering insights into design considerations and future research directions to overcome existing limitations and fully realize the potential of nucleic acid-based electrochemical sensors for healthcare applications.